Swept forward in broad ink lines and taut compositions, his horses are rarely still: they surge, rear and strain ahead, their energy barely contained. Trained in Western anatomical study, yet grounded in Chinese brush tradition, Xu gave his subjects both physical weight and expressive force.

During the Chinese People’s War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression (1931-45), Xu’s horses came to stand for resilience, moral resolve and the aspiration of a society struggling toward renewal.

Yet, this symbolic power did not emerge in isolation. Across history, in both Chinese and Western societies, horses were far more than instruments of transport or war. They facilitated movement itself — of people, goods, ideas, technology and beliefs.

In China, the opening of the Silk Road during the Han Dynasty relied not only on camel caravans, but also on horses capable of guarding routes, carrying officials and sustaining control over vast frontiers.

Demand for strong warhorses from Central Asia fostered sustained contact between China and the nomadic societies of the Eurasian steppe, creating a horse-powered network of diplomacy and trade through which silk, jade, metalwork and ideas traveled east and west.

In later periods, especially during the Song Dynasty between the 10th and 13th centuries, China institutionalized horse acquisition through systems such as the Tea-Horse Trade, exchanging tea for warhorses from frontier regions in the west and southwest.

These routes declined under the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), as the Mongol rulers’ direct control of the Eurasian steppe reduced the need for such exchanges.

During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the question of horse supply resurfaced. Warhorses were obtained through several parallel channels: Joseon Korea (1392-1897), particularly Jeju Island, provided horses through tribute and limited trade, though these remained supplementary, while frontier horse markets along the northern border enabled regulated exchanges with Mongol groups for steppe-bred mounts.